Biology - Year II

B4.1.1 - Habitats 

B4.1.2 - Adaptations of organisms to the abiotic environment 

B4.1.3 - Abiotic variables affecting species distribution

B4.1.4 - Range of tolerance of a limiting factor

B4.1.5 - Conditions required for coral reef formation

B4.1.6 - Abiotic factors as basis for terrestrial biome distribution

B4.1.7 - Biomes as groups of ecosystems  

B4.1.8 - Adaptations to life in hot deserts and tropical rainforest

B4.2.1 - Ecological niche a species' role in an ecosystem. 

B4.2.2 - Obligate & facultative anaerobes, & obligate aerobes

B4.2.3 - Photosynthesis as nutrition (plants, algae, prokaryotes)

B4.2.4 - Holozoic nutrition in animals

B4.2.5 - Mixotrophic nutrition in some protists

B4.2.6 - Saprotrophic nutrition in some fungi and bacteria

B4.2.7 - Diversity of nutrition in archaea 

B4.2.8 - Relationship between dentition & diet in Hominids

B4.2.9 - Adaptations of Herbivores & their "Prey"

B4.2.10 - Adaptations of Predators & Prey

B4.2.11 - Adaptations of plant form for harvesting light

B4.2.12 - Fundamental and realized niches

B4.2.13 - Competitive exclusion, uniqueness of ecological niches

C4.1.1 - Populations as interacting groups of organisms 

C4.1.2 - Estimation of population size by random sampling

C4.1.3 - Random quadrat sampling to estimate population size

C4.1.4 - Capture–mark–release–recapture & the Lincoln index

C4.1.5 - Carrying capacity and competition for limited resources

C4.1.6 - Density-dependent factors & Negative Feedback

C4.1.7 - Population growth curves

C4.1.8 - Modelling of the sigmoid population growth curve

C4.1.9 - Competition vs Cooperation: intraspecific relationships

C4.1.10 - Communities

C4.1.11 - Interspecific relationships  

C4.1.12 - Mutualism as an interspecific relationship 

C4.1.13 - Resource competition - endemic & invasive species

C4.1.14 - Tests for interspecific competition

C4.1.15 - Chi-squared test for association between two species

C4.1.16 - Predator–prey relationships: density-dependent control

C4.1.17 - Top-down & bottom-up control of populations 

C4.1.18 - Allelopathy and secretion of antibiotics

B4.2.1 - Ecological niche a species' role in an ecosystem. 

B4.2.2 - Obligate & facultative anaerobes, & obligate aerobes

B4.2.3 - Photosynthesis as nutrition (plants, algae, prokaryotes)

B4.2.4 - Holozoic nutrition in animals

B4.2.5 - Mixotrophic nutrition in some protists

B4.2.6 - Saprotrophic nutrition in some fungi and bacteria

B4.2.7 - Diversity of nutrition in archaea 

B4.2.8 - Relationship between dentition & diet in Hominids

B4.2.9 - Adaptations of Herbivores & their "Prey"

B4.2.10 - Adaptations of Predators & Prey

B4.2.11 - Adaptations of plant form for harvesting light

B4.2.12 - Fundamental and realized niches

B4.2.13 - Competitive exclusion, uniqueness of ecological niches

D4.3.1 -  Anthropogenic causes of climate change

D4.3.2-  Positive feedback cycles in global warming

D4.3.3 - Tipping points

D4.3.4 - Melting of landfast & sea ice: polar habitat change

D4.3.5 - Ocean currents altering nutrient upwelling

D4.3.6 - Poleward and upslope range shifts of temperate species

D4.3.7 - Threats to coral reefs & potential ecosystem collapse

D4.3.8 - Approaches to carbon sequestration

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D4.3.9 - Phenology as research into timing of biological events

D4.3.10 - Disruption to the synchrony of phenological events 

D4.3.11 - Phenological increase in number of insect life cycles 

D4.3.12 - Evolution as a consequence of climate change

A4.2.1 - Biodiversity as the variety of life in all its forms

A4.2.2 - Comparisons between current and past biodiversity

A4.2.3 - Causes of anthropogenic species extinction

A4.2.4 - Causes of ecosystem loss

A4.2.5 - Evidence for a biodiversity crisis

A4.2.6 - Causes of the current biodiversity crisis

A4.2.7 - Need for several approaches to conservation 

A4.2.8 - Selection EDGE species

D2.1.1 - Generation of new cells in organisms by cell division 

D2.1.2 - Cytokinesis 

D2.1.3 - Equal and unequal cytokinesis

D2.1.4 - Roles of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes

D2.1.5 - DNA replication, a prerequisite for mitosis &  meiosis

D2.1.6 - Condensation & movement of chromosomes 

D2.1.7 - Phases of mitosis

D2.1.8 - Identification of phases of mitosis

D2.1.9 - Meiosis as a reduction division

D2.1.10 - Down syndrome and nondisjunction

D2.1.11 - Meiosis as a source of variation

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D2.1.12 - Cell proliferation, cell replacement, and tissue repair

D2.1.13 - Phases of the cell cycle

D2.1.14 - Cell growth during interphase

D2.1.15 - Control of the cell cycle using cyclins

D2.1.16 - Mutations in genes that control the cell cycle

D2.1.17 - Differences between tumours in rates of cell division and growth and capacity for metastasis 

D3.1.1 -  Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

D3.1.2 - Role of meiosis & gamete fusion in the sexual life cycle

D3.1.3 - Differences between male and female sexes 

D3.1.4 - Anatomy of human male & female reproductive systems

D3.1.5 - Changes during the ovarian and uterine cycles 

D3.1.6 - Fertilization in humans

D3.1.7 - Use of hormones in in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment

D3.1.8 - Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

D3.1.9 - Features of an insect-pollinated flower

D3.1.10 - Methods of promoting cross-pollination

D3.1.11 - Self-incompatibility mechanisms 

D3.1.12 - Dispersal and germination of seeds

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D3.1.13 - Control of the developmental changes of puberty by gonadotropin-releasing hormone and steroid sex hormones

D3.1.14 - Spermatogenesis and oogenesis in humans

D3.1.15 - Mechanisms to prevent polyspermy

D3.1.16 - Development of a blastocyst & implantation

D3.1.17 - Pregnancy testing by detection of hCG secretion

D3.1.18 - Role of the placenta in fetal development 

D3.1.19 - Hormonal control of pregnancy and childbirth

D3.20 - Hormone replacement & risk of coronary heart disease

D3.2.1 - Fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote

D3.2.2 - Conducting genetic crosses flowering plants

D3.2.3 - Genotype

D3.2.4 - Phenotype

D3.2.5 - Effects of dominant and recessive alleles on phenotype

D3.2.6 - Phenotypic plasticity

D3.2.7 - Phenylketonuria (PKU)

D3.2.8 - Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)

D3.2.9 - ABO blood groups

D3.2.10 - Incomplete dominance and codominance

D3.2.11 - Sex determination in humans

D3.2.12 - Haemophilia

D3.2.13 - Pedigree charts

D3.2.14 - Continuous variation

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D3.2.15 - Segregation & independent assortment

D3.2.16 - Dihybrid crosses for autosomal genes

D3.2.17 - Loci of human genes and their polypeptide products

D3.2.18 - Autosomal gene linkage

D3.2.19 - Recombinants in crosses with linked or unlinked genes

D3.2.21 - Use of a chi-squared test on data from dihybrid crosses

D4.1.1 - Natural selection drives evolutionary change over time

D4.1.2 - Mutation and sexual reproduction create variation

D4.1.3 - Overproduction & competition promote selection

D4.1.4 - Abiotic factors act as selection pressures

D4.1.5 - Natural Selection; Adaptation, survival, & reproduction

D4.1.6 - Traits must be heritable for evolution to occur

D4.1.7 - Sexual selection drives evolution in animal species

D4.1.8 - Models of selection - sexual & natural selection.

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D4.1.9 - A gene pool consists of all the genes in a population

D4.1.10 - Allele Frequencies & Geographical isolation

D4.1.11 - Natural selection changes allele frequencies over time

D4.1.12 - Directional, disruptive, and stabilizing selection

D4.1.13 - Hardy-Weinberg predicts genotype frequencies

D4.1.14 - Hardy-Weinberg conditions define genetic equilibrium

D4.1.15 - Artificial selection occurs via deliberate breeding

A3.1.1 - Variation between organisms: A defining feature of life

A3.1.2 - Species as groups of organisms with shared traits

A3.1.3 - Binomial system for naming organisms

A3.1.4 - Biological species concept

A3.1.5 - Distinguishing populations & species during speciation

A3.1.6 - Diversity in chromosome numbers in plants & animals

A3.1.7 - Karyotyping and karyograms

A3.1.8 - Unity and diversity of genomes within species

A3.1.9 - Diversity of eukaryote genomes

A3.1.10 - Comparison of genome sizes

A3.1.11 - Current & future uses of whole genome sequencing

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A3.1.12 - Biological species concept & asexual reproduction

A3.1.13 - Chromosome number as a shared trait within a species

A3.1.14 - Developing dichotomous keys

A3.1.15 - Identification of species from eDNA using barcodes

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A3.1.1 - Need for classification of organisms

A3.1.2 - Difficulties with traditional hierarchy of taxa

A3.1.3 - Advantages of Cladistics based on evolution

A3.1.4 - Clades groups with common ancestry & shared traits

A3.1.5 - Gradual DNA sequence differences in clades 

A3.1.6 - Cladograms are "Based" on DNA and Amino Acid Seq.

A3.1.7 - Analysing cladograms

A3.1.8 - Using cladistics to verify classification & reclassify

A3.1.9 - Classification of all life into three domains using rRNA

A4.1.1 - Evolution - Change in heritable traits of a population

A4.1.2 - Evidence for evolution DNA, RNA, amino acid sequence

A4.1.3 - Evidence for evolution from selective breeding 

A4.1.4 - Evidence for evolution from homologous structures

A4.1.5 - Analogous Structures created by Convergent evolution

A4.1.6 - Speciation by splitting of pre-existing species

A4.1.7 - Roles of reproductive isolation & differential selection

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A4.1.8 - Sympatric & allopatric speciation

A4.1.9 - Adaptive radiation as a source of biodiversity

A4.1.10 - Sterility of hybrids as a barriers to hybridization

A4.1.11 - Abrupt speciation in plants by hybridization, polyploidy

C3.2.1 - Pathogens as the cause of infectious diseases

C3.2.2 - Skin & mucous membranes as a primary defense

C3.2.3 - Sealing of cuts in skin by blood clotting

C3.2.4 - Differences between innate & adaptive immunity

C3.2.5 - Infection control by phagocytes

C3.2.6 - Adaptive immunity; lymphocytes, antibody production

C3.2.7 - Antigens, recognition molecules that trigger antibodies

C3.2.8 - Activation of B-Cells by helper T-Cells

C3.2.9 - Multiplication of B-Cells into plasma cells

C3.2.10 - Immunity as a result of memory cells

C3.2.11 - Transmission of HIV in body fluids

C3.2.12 - Infection of lymphocytes by HIV and AIDS as a result

C3.2.13 - Antibiotics as chemicals blocking bacterial processes

C3.2.14 - Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria

C3.2.15 - Zoonoses - diseases transferring from animals 

C3.2.16 - Vaccines and immunization

C3.2.17 - Herd immunity and prevention of epidemics

C3.2.18 - Evaluation of data related to the COVID-19 pandemic

C2.2.1 -Neurons as cells that carry electrical impulses

C2.2.2 - Generation of the resting potential by Na K pumps

C2.2.3 - Nerve impulses as action potentials along nerve fibres

C2.2.4 - Variation in the speed of nerve impulses

C2.2.5 - Synapses as junctions between neurons

C2.2.6 - Neurotransmitter release from presynaptic membrane

C2.2.7 - Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential

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C2.2.8 - Depolarization & repolarization during action potentials

C2.2.9 - Propagation of action potentials

C2.2.10 - Oscilloscope showing resting & action potentials

C2.2.11 - Saltatory conduction & myelin (faster impulses) 

C2.2.12 - Effects of exogenous chemicals on neurotransmitters

C2.2.13 - Inhibitory neurotransmitters 

C2.2.14 - Sum of excitatory & inhibitory neurotransmitter effects

C2.2.15 - Perception of pain by neurons in the skin

C2.2.16 - Consciousness as an emergent property

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C2.1.1 - Receptors as proteins with specific binding sites

C2.1.2 - Cell signalling by bacteria in quorum sensing

C2.1.3 - Signalling molecules (Hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines & calcium ions) 

C2.1.4 - Chemical diversity of hormones & neurotransmitters

C2.1.5 - Localized & distant effects of signalling molecules

C2.1.6 - Pasma membrane receptors Vs. intracellular receptors

C2.1.7 - Generation of an excitatory postsynaptic potential

C2.1.8 - Transmembrane receptors for neurotransmitters 

C2.1.9 - Transmembrane receptors that activate G proteins

C2.1.10 - Mechanism of action: epinephrine receptors

C2.1.11 - Transmembrane receptors with tyrosine kinase activity

C2.1.12 - Intracellular receptors that affect gene expression

C2.1.13 - Effects of the hormones oestradiol & progesterone 

C2.1.14 - Positive & negative feedback regulation of signalling

B3.1.1 - Gas exchange is a vital function in all organisms

B3.1.2 - Gas-exchange surfaces share certain properties

B3.1.3 - Maintaining surface concentration gradients

B3.1.4 - Mammalian lungs are adapted for gas exchange

B3.1.5 - Ventilation of the lungs

B3.1.6 - Lung volumes can be measured

B3.1.7 - Leaves are adapted for gas exchange

B3.1.8 - Drawing plan diagrams of leaf tissues from micrographs

B3.1.9 - Transpiration is a consequence of leaf gas exchange

B3.1.10 - Determining stomatal density, leaf casts & micrographs

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B3.1.11 - Fetal & adult haemoglobin have different O2 affinities

B3.1.12 - Bohr shift & increased O2 release in respiring tissues

B3.1.13 - Oxygen dissociation curves are S-shaped

B3.2.1 - Adaptations of capillaries material exchange

B3.2.2 - Structure of arteries & veins

B3.2.3 - Adaptations of arteries to transport of blood away

B3.2.4 - Measurement of pulse rates

B3.2.5 - Adaptations of veins to return blood to the heart

B3.2.6 - Causes & consequences coronary artery blockage

B3.2.7 - Transpiration 

B3.2.8 - Adaptations of xylem vessels for transport of water

B3.2.9 - Tissues in a transverse section of stem

B3.2.10 - Tissues in a transverse section of root 

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B3.2.11 - Release and reuptake of tissue fluid in capillaries

B3.2.12 - Exchange between tissue fluid and cells in tissues

B3.2.13 - Drainage of excess tissue fluid into lymph ducts

B3.2.14 - Single circulation vs. double circulation of mammals

B3.2.15 - Adaptations of the mammalian heart 

B3.2.16 - Stages in the cardiac cycle

B3.2.17 - Generation of root pressure in xylem vessels by ions

B3.2.18 - Adaptations of phloem sieve tubes & companion cells

C3.1.1 - System integration

C3.1.2 - Cells, tissues, organs and body systems 

C3.1.3 - Integration of organs - hormonal & nervous signalling

C3.1.4 - The brain as a central information integration organ

C3.1.5 - The spinal cord as an integrating centre 

C3.1.6 - Input to the spinal cord and cerebral hemispheres

C3.1.7 - Output from the cerebral hemisphe res to muscles

C3.1.8 - Nerves as bundles of nerve fibres

C3.1.9 - Pain reflex arcs as an example of involuntary responses

C3.1.10 - Role of the cerebellum in coordination

C3.1.11 - Modulation of sleep patterns by melatonin secretion 

C3.1.12 - Epinephrine (adrenaline) secretion by the adrenals

C3.1.13 - Control of the endocrine system 

C3.1.14 - Feedback control of heart rate 

C3.1.15 - Feedback control of ventilation rate 

C3.1.16 - Control of peristalsis in the digestive system 

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C3.1.17 - Observations of tropic responses in seedlings

C3.1.18 - Positive phototropism as a directional growth response

C3.1.19 - Phytohormones as signalling chemicals 

C3.1.20 - Auxin efflux carriers 

C3.1.21 - Promotion of cell growth by auxin

C3.1.22 - Interactions between auxin & cytokinin 

C3.1.23 - Positive feedback in fruit ripening & ethylen production